Latin America has been the scene of numerous border disputes throughout history due to colonial-era border demarcations, ethnic diversity, struggles over access to natural resources, and weak institutional structures. The borders of the new states that emerged after the independence movements of the 19th century were often vague, map-based, and drawn according to the interests of colonial powers. This historical legacy continues to exert its influence in modern Latin America. Despite the advent of the 21st century, border disputes continue to disrupt both inter-state relations and regional integration projects in the region from time to time.
During the Spanish and Portuguese colonial periods, the territories that are now Latin America were generally administered according to the principle of “maintaining the status quo.” According to this principle, when a region gained independence, its borders were accepted as they were during the colonial period. However, the borders established through this method were often unclear, lacked cartographic support, and were impractical to enforce. This situation led to frequent disputes over borders as independent states emerged. For example, the border disputes between Peru and Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile, and Venezuela and Guyana are direct consequences of this period.
One such dispute, the border issue between Peru and Ecuador, escalated into armed conflict in 1941 and was only resolved in 1998 with the Brasilia Peace Agreement. This agreement defined the border line in the Amazon region and reestablished diplomatic relations between the parties. However, during this process, it was notable that the borders were shaped in relation to access to natural resources.
The 1884 Armistice Agreement and the 1904 Peace Treaty, which deprived Bolivia of its right to access the sea, are still controversial today.[1] Bolivia appealed to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) requesting renegotiation with Chile, but in 2018, the Court ruled that Chile had no such obligation.[2] This decision is important in that it shows the limits of international law-based solutions in Latin America.
Claims over the Essequibo region have reignited with Venezuela’s invalidation of the 1899 Arbitration Awward.[3] Guyana’s oil exploration activities in the region are considered by Venezuela to be a violation of sovereignty, and the issue is still on the ICJ’s agenda. This dispute demonstrates how natural resources play a decisive role in border politics.
Although the dispute between Colombia and Nicaragua over sovereignty of the San Andrés and Providencia islands in the Caribbean Sea was largely resolved by the ICJ’s decision in 2012, new applications have been filed regarding the delimitation of maritime jurisdiction areas.[4] This situation highlights the importance of border disputes in the context of maritime law.
Belize, located in eastern Central America, has long been at the center of an unresolved border dispute with Guatemala. An agreement signed between Britain and Guatemala in 1859 defined Belize’s borders.[5] However, Guatemala has continued to claim rights over the territory in southwestern Belize, arguing that certain provisions of the agreement have been violated.[6] This situation became even more complicated when Belize declared its independence in 1981.
Guatemala did not officially recognize Belize until 1991 and has occasionally maintained its claim through diplomatic pressure and even military demonstrations. These tensions have led to local conflicts in some villages along the border and have negatively affected relations between the peoples of the region. However, since the 2000s, the parties have turned to seeking peaceful solutions at the urging of the international community. The issue was brought before the ICJ in referendums held in 2018 and 2019, and it was decided that the process would proceed on a legal basis.[7]
Tensions along the Belize-Guatemala border and maritime disputes in the Caribbean demonstrate that border issues in Latin America are not limited to the continental dimension. These disputes also pose significant challenges to the regional security architecture, with the mediating role of platforms such as the Central American Integration System being debated. While there is a growing orientation toward international law, political will, technical capacity, and social consensus must work together to achieve a lasting solution to these issues.
Similarly, there are occasional disagreements between Venezuela and Curaçao and Aruba, which are part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, regarding the boundaries of their exclusive economic zones.[8] The existence of undersea oil and natural gas reserves in particular makes these disputes even more strategic. The large number of small island states in the Caribbean Sea complicates the demarcation of maritime boundaries and makes maritime jurisdiction disputes increasingly important.
Latin American countries have generally preferred peaceful means to resolve border disputes, making effective use of the ICJ, arbitration commissions, and bilateral diplomatic channels. However, these methods have not always yielded quick results. In some cases, border issues have been used as a tool of national identity politics and exploited for domestic political purposes.
Regional integration initiatives such as the South American Common Market, the Union of South American Nations, and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States have promoted economic cooperation but have had indirect effects rather than playing a direct role in resolving border disputes. On the other hand, the South American Defense Council, established in 2008, aims to develop common defense principles to prevent border disputes from taking on a military dimension.
Many border disputes are rooted in the desire to access strategic natural resources such as oil, natural gas, water resources, or minerals. For example, in the Guyana-Venezuela crisis, ExxonMobil’s oil exploration activities in Essequibo have become not only a border issue but also a geopolitical and economic dispute. Similarly, Bolivia’s demand for access to the sea from Chile can be seen not only as a geographical demand but also as a search for port and trade advantages.
In conclusion, border disputes in Latin America are multi-layered in terms of their historical, legal, economic, and cultural dimensions. Although most countries seek solutions while avoiding conflict, the discourse of national sovereignty remains very strong. This situation may render integration projects ineffective in resolving border issues.
[1] “Bolivia’s Claim for Sovereign Sea Access”, The Rio Times, https://www.riotimesonline.com/bolivias-claim-for-sovereign-sea-access-a-persistent-latin-american-issue/, (Accessed Date: 05.25.2025).
[2] International Court of Justice. “Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile)”, International Court of Justice, www.icj-cij.org/case/153, (Accessed Date: 05.25.2025).
[3] “Notes on the History of the Venezuela/Guyana Boundary Dispute”, Cebri.org, https://www.cebri.org/revista/en/artigo/138/notes-on-the-history-of-the-venezuelaguyana-boundary-dispute, (Accessed Date: 05.25.2025).
[4] International Court of Justice. “Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia)”, International Court of Justice, www.icj-cij.org/case/124, (Accessed Date: 05.25.2025).
[5] “Belize (British Honduras) – Guatemala Boundary”, Limits in the Seas, no. 8, U.S. Department of State, https://library.law.fsu.edu/Digital-Collections/LimitsinSeas/pdf/ibs008.pdf, (Accessed Date: 05.25.2025).
[6] Menon, P. K. Note on Belize/Guatemala Dispute. American Society of International Law, 2002. Guatemala contends that the 1859 treaty is void because the British failed to comply with all its economic assistance clauses. https://iilj.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Note-on-Belize-Guatemala-Dispute.pdf, (Accessed Date: 05.25.2025).
[7] “The Court Seised of a Dispute Between Guatemala and Belize”, International Court of Justice, https://www.icj-cij.org/node/105813, (Accessed Date: 05.25.2025).
[8] United Nations. Boundary Delimitation Treaty between the Republic of Venezuela and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, https://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/TREATIES/VEN-NLD1978BD.PDF, (Accessed Date: 05.25.2025).
