Argentina’s intensive oil and natural gas exploration and extraction activities in the Vaca Muerta region have accelerated the country’s energy initiatives. The proximity of this region to the South Pole has once again drawn attention to the energy resources of the Antarctic continent. The increase in shale oil and shale gas production in Patagonia has the potential to spark new debates about Antarctica’s natural wealth and legal status, especially in a period of intensified global energy competition.
Although the U.S. Geological Survey’s 1983 report stated that there were no economically viable oil or natural gas reserves, documents submitted to the UK House of Commons in 2024 revealed that Russia’s seismic research off the Weddell Sea indicates significant reserves beneath Antarctica’s continental shelf.[1][2] This area is within the scope of the UK’s historical territorial claims; however, other countries such as Argentina and Chile have made similar claims over the same region.[3]
The Madrid Protocol, which entered into force in 1991 and explicitly banned mining activities in Antarctica, provides a strong foundation for environmental protection. However, increasing interest in the reserves and technological advancements have led to the re-evaluation of the continent not only from a scientific perspective but also in economic and geopolitical terms. In this context, Antarctica remains a fragile area that must be managed carefully both in terms of its natural resource potential and international law.
Interest in Antarctica’s energy resources began to emerge on the international agenda with geological studies conducted in the 1970s. As emphasized in Barbara Mitchell’s 1977 analysis, there is mention of significant oil and natural gas potential in the areas stretching along the continent’s continental shelf; this situation is noted as having the potential to give rise to political and legal issues in the future.[4]
The Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959 by twelve countries—Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the USSR (now Russia), the United Kingdom, and the United States—officially came into effect in 1961.[5] The treaty defined the South Pole as an area open solely to peaceful and scientific activities and prohibited any military or sovereignty-based activities. Today, the number of parties to the treaty has reached 54, with 29 of them holding consultative status and participating in the decision-making processes.[6] This framework has turned Antarctica into a symbol of international cooperation.
Adopted in 1991 and entering into force in 1998, the Madrid Protocol was established as an environmental protocol supplementary to the Antarctic Treaty to more strongly protect the continent’s ecosystem. Article 7 of the Protocol explicitly prohibits “any activity relating to mineral resources, except for scientific research.”[7] Within this scope, the exploration, extraction, or commercial use of underground resources—including oil and natural gas—is strictly prohibited. The protocol not only protects the natural integrity of the continent but also acts as a security mechanism to prevent the legal and geopolitical risks that energy competition may bring.
The possibility of oil and gas exploration and extraction activities in Antarctica remains contentious under the framework of the Madrid Protocol adopted in 1991. However, in 2048, a review conference may be convened to examine and potentially revise the Protocol.[8] This would require the approval of two-thirds of all Parties and Consultative Parties[9]. Therefore, after this date, significant changes regarding petroleum and natural gas extraction activities in Antarctica may become possible.
Global powers are approaching the possibility of accessing oil and gas reserves in Antarctica cautiously, especially in the post-2048 era. Increasing global energy demand, concerns over the depletion of fossil fuel sources, and the discovery of new potential reserves are prompting major powers to show greater interest in Antarctica’s energy potential. This interest is not merely driven by scientific curiosity but also shaped by concerns over energy security, geopolitical competition, and economic interests. However, in this process, it is important to consider the impact on Antarctica’s fragile ecosystem and to ensure that any extraction of natural resources takes place within a legal and political framework agreed upon by the international community.
In the future, a serious global crisis may arise over the sharing of oil and gas resources in Antarctica. Several countries already have claims of sovereignty and ownership on the continent. In particular, countries such as Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom assert territorial rights in the region. This situation may lead to serious disputes over resource sharing. Furthermore, competition over the control of resources and the distribution of economic benefits could trigger a major global crisis, as many actors from around the world may seek a say on the continent.
[1] Behrendt, John C., editor. Petroleum and Mineral Resources of Antarctica. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 909, 1983. https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1983/0909/report.pdf, (Access Date: 23.03.2025).
[2] McHardy, Martha. “Russia Just Found Huge Oil Reserves in Antarctica.” Newsweek, www.newsweek.com/russia-oil-reserves-antarctica-weddell-sea-uk-1909487, (Access Date: 23.03.2025).
[3] BBC News Mundo. “La histórica visita del presidente de Chile al Polo Sur: qué países reclaman la soberanía sobre la Antártida y por qué.”BBC, https://www.bbc.com/mundo/articles/cr7vdxlg8e7o, (Access Date: 23.03.2025).
[4] Mitchell, Barbara. “Resources in Antarctica: Potential for Conflict.” Marine Policy, vol. 1, no. 2, 1977, pp. 91–101. https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-0308597X77900446/first-page-pdf, (Access Date: 23.03.2025).
[5] The Antarctic Treaty. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, www.ats.aq/e/antarctictreaty.html, (Access Date: 23.03.2025).
[6] Parties. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, www.ats.aq/devAS/Parties?lang=e, (Access Date: 23.03.2025).
[7] The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, www.ats.aq/e/protocol.html, (Access Date: 23.03.2025).
[8] Ibid.
[9] Ibid.
